Logic in Argumentative Writing

This post is the first of a series of post on argumentative writing. Read them carefully because “In academic writing, an argument is usually a main idea, often called a “claim” or “thesis statement,” backed up with evidence that supports the idea. In the majority of college papers, you will need to make some sort of claim and use evidence to support it, and your ability to do this well will separate your papers from those of students who see assignments as mere accumulations of fact and detail. In other words, gone are the happy days of being given a “topic” about which you can write anything. It is time to stake out a position and prove why it is a good position for a thinking person to hold.” (From UNC – Writing Center)

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This handout is designed to help writers develop and use logical arguments in writing. Through an introduction in some of the basic terms and operations of logic, the handout helps writers analyze the arguments of others and generate their own arguments. However, it is important to remember that logic is only one aspect of a successful argument. Non-logical arguments, statements that cannot be logically proven or disproved, are important in argumentative writing, such as appeals to emotions or values. Illogical arguments, on the other hand, are false and must be avoided.

Logic is a formal system of analysis that helps writers invent, demonstrate, and prove arguments. It works by testing propositions against one another to determine their accuracy. People often think they are using logic when they avoid emotion or make arguments based on their common sense, such as “Everyone should look out for their own self interests” or “People have the right to be free.” However, unemotional or common sense statements are not always equivalent to logical statements. To be logical, a proposition must be tested within a logical sequence.

The most famous logical sequence, called the syllogism, was developed by the Greek philosopher Aristotle. His most famous syllogism is:

Premise 1: All men are mortal.
Premise 2: Socrates is a man.
Conclusion: Therefore, Socrates is mortal.

In this sequence, premise 2 is tested against premise 1 to reach the logical conclusion. Within this system, if both premises are considered valid, there is no other logical conclusion than determining that Socrates is a mortal.

This guide provides some vocabulary and strategies for determining logical conclusions.

Reaching Logical Conclusions

Reaching logical conclusions depends on the proper analysis of premises. The goal of a syllogism is to arrange premises so that only one true conclusion is possible.

Example A:
Consider the following premises:

Premise 1: Non-renewable resources do not exist in infinite supply.
Premise 2: Coal is a non-renewable resource.

From these two premises, only one logical conclusion is available:

Conclusion: Coal does not exist in infinite supply.

Example B:
Often logic requires several premises to reach a conclusion.

Premise 1: All monkeys are primates.
Premise 2: All primates are mammals.
Premise 3: All mammals are vertebrate animals. Conclusions: Monkeys are vertebrate animals.

Example C:
Logic allows specific conclusions to be drawn from general premises. Consider the following premises:

Premise 1: All squares are rectangles.
Premise 2: Figure 1 is a square.
Conclusion: Figure 1 is also a rectangle.

Example D:
Notice that logic requires decisive statements in order to work. Therefore, this syllogism is false:

Premise 1: Some quadrilaterals are squares.
Premise 2: Figure 1 is a quadrilateral.
Conclusion: Figure 1 is a square.

This syllogism is false because not enough information is provided to allow a verifiable conclusion. Figure 1 could just as likely be a rectangle, which is also a quadrilateral.

Example E:
Logic can also mislead when it is based on premises that an audience does not accept. For instance:

Premise 1: People with red hair are not good at checkers.
Premise 2: Bill has red hair.
Conclusion: Bill is not good at checkers.

Within the syllogism, the conclusion is logically valid. However, it is only true if an audience accepts Premise 1, which is very unlikely. This is an example of how logical statements can appear accurate while being completely false.

Example F:
Logical conclusions also depend on which factors are recognized and ignored by the premises. Therefore, different premises could lead to very different conclusions about the same subject. For instance, these two syllogisms about the platypus reveal the limits of logic for handling ambiguous cases:

Premise 1: All birds lay eggs.
Premise 2: Platypuses lay eggs.
Conclusion: Platypuses are birds.

Premise 1: All mammals have fur.
Premise 2: Platypuses have fur.
Conclusion: Platypuses are mammals.

Though logic is a very powerful argumentative tool and is far preferable to a disorganized argument, logic does have limitations. It must also be effectively developed from a syllogism into a written piece.

Be careful about the use of capital letters in your essays:

This handout lists some guidelines for capitalization. If you have a question about whether a specific word should be capitalized that doesn’t fit under one of these rules, try checking a dictionary to see if the word is capitalized there.

Use capital letters in the following ways:

The first words of a sentence

When he tells a joke, he sometimes forgets the punch line.

The pronoun “I”

The last time I visited Atlanta was several years ago.

Proper nouns (the names of specific people, places, organizations, and sometimes things)

Worrill Fabrication Company

Golden Gate Bridge

Supreme Court

Livingston, Missouri

Atlantic Ocean

Mothers Against Drunk Driving

Family relationships (when used as proper names)

I sent a thank-you note to Aunt Abigail, but not to my other aunts.

Here is a present I bought for Mother.

Did you buy a present for your mother?

The names of God, specific deities, religious figures, and holy books

God the Father

the Virgin Mary

the Bible

the Greek gods

Moses

Shiva

Buddha

Zeus

Exception: Do not capitalize the non-specific use of the word “god.”

The word “polytheistic” means the worship of more than one god.

Titles preceding names, but not titles that follow names

She worked as the assistant to Mayor Hanolovi.

I was able to interview Miriam Moss, mayor of Littonville.

Directions that are names (North, South, East, and West when used as sections of the country, but not as compass directions)

The Patels have moved to the Southwest.

Jim’s house is two miles north of Otterbein.

The days of the week, the months of the year, and holidays (but not the seasons used generally)

Halloween

October

Friday

winter

spring

fall

Exception: Seasons are capitalized when used in a title.

The Fall 1999 semester

The names of countries, nationalities, and specific languages

Costa Rica

Spanish

French

English

The first word in a sentence that is a direct quote

Emerson once said, “A foolish consistency is the hobgoblin of little minds.”

The major words in the titles of books, articles, and songs (but not short prepositions or the articles “the,” “a,” or “an,” if they are not the first word of the title)

One of Jerry’s favorite books is The Catcher in the Rye.

Members of national, political, racial, social, civic, and athletic groups

Green Bay Packers

African-Americans

Anti-Semitic

Democrats

Friends of the Wilderness

Chinese

Periods and events (but not century numbers)

Victorian Era

Great Depression

Constitutional Convention

sixteenth century

Trademarks

Pepsi

Honda

IBM

Microsoft Word

Words and abbreviations of specific names (but not names of things that came from specific things but are now general types)

Freudian

NBC

pasteurize

UN

french fries

italics

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Via OWL.

Students always ask me about these two words. Since the difference is not so easy to grasp, I decided to post something that might be useful for you.

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Especially or Specially?

This is a favorite question of grammar checkers. Most of the time there is little or no difference between the words especially and specially.

Special is a common adjective. Specially is its adverb form. Special means “particular, distinguished in a distinct way, or designed for a particular purpose.” Specially means “particularly, in a disintguishing manner, or for a particular purpose.”

Especial is an uncommon adjective. Especially, its adverb form, is much more common. Especial means “exceptional, noteworthy, or particular.” Especially means “exceptionally, in a noteworthy manner, or particularly.”

In the sense of “particular” or “particularly,” the words mean pretty much the same thing. Often they can be used synonymously. However, if you want to stress the exceptional or noteworthy quality, then especial or especially is a better choice. If you want to stress the distinctive purpose of something, then special or specially is the word you are looking for.

Example: This program has specially designed macros for word processors.
(A distinctive purpose)

Example: He did especially well in All-Star Game.
(A noteworthy performance)

Directions: Revise the following passage, avoiding wordiness and undesirable repetition.

A large number of people enjoy reading murder mysteries regularly. As a rule, these people are not themselves murderers, nor would these people really ever enjoy seeing someone commit an actual murder, nor would most of them actually enjoy trying to solve an actual murder. They probably enjoy reading murder mysteries because of this reason: they have found a way to escape from the monotonous, boring routine of dull everyday existence.

To such people the murder mystery is realistic fantasy. It is realistic because the people in the murder mystery are as a general rule believable as people. They are not just made up pasteboard figures. It is also realistic because the character who is the hero, the character who solves the murder mystery, solves it not usually by trial and error and haphazard methods but by exercising a high degree of logic and reason. It is absolutely and totally essential that people who enjoy murder mysteries have an admiration for the human faculty of logic.

But murder mysteries are also fantasies. The people who read such books of fiction play a game. It is a game in which they suspend certain human emotions. One of these human emotions that they suspend is pity. If the reader stops to feel pity and sympathy for each and every victim that is killed or if the reader stops to feel terrible horror that such a thing could happen in our world of today, that person will never enjoy reading murder mysteries. The devoted reader of murder mysteries keeps uppermost in mind at all times the goal of arriving through logic and observation at the final solution to the mystery offered in the book. It is a game with life and death. Whodunits hopefully help the reader to hide from the hideous horrors of actual life and death in the real world.

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Important: answers must be sent via email. Deadline: May 26th

Add the Finishing Touches

You have now completed all of the paragraphs of your essay. Before you can consider this a finished product,

however, you must give some thought to the formatting of your paper.

Check the order of your paragraphs.

Look at your paragraphs. Which one is the strongest? You might want to start with the strongest paragraph, end with the second strongest, and put the weakest in the middle. Whatever order you decide on, be sure it makes sense. If your paper is describing a process, you will probably need to stick to the order in which the steps must be completed.

Check the instructions for the assignment.

When you prepare a final draft, you must be sure to follow all of the instructions you have been given.

• Are your margins correct?
• Have you titled it as directed?
• What other information (name, date, etc.) must you include?
• Did you double-space your lines?

Check your writing.

Nothing can substitute for revision of your work. By reviewing what you have done, you can improve weak points that otherwise would be missed. Read and reread your paper.

• Does it make logical sense? Leave it for a few hours and then read it again. Does it still make logical sense?
• Do the sentences flow smoothly from one another? If not, try to add some words and phrases to help connect them. Transition words, such as “therefore” or “however,” sometimes help. Also, you might refer in one sentence to a thought in the previous sentence. This is especially useful when you move from one paragraph to another.
• Have you run a spell checker or a grammar checker? These aids cannot catch every error, but they might catch errors that you have missed.

(Do not forget to include references!)

Once you have checked your work and perfected your formatting, your essay is finished.

Congratulations!

Outline

1. Begin your outline by writing your topic at the top of the page.

2. Next, write the Roman numerals I, II, and III, spread apart down the left side of the page.

3. Next to each Roman numeral, write the main ideas that you have about your topic, or the main points that you want to make.

• If you are trying to persuade, you want to write your best arguments.
• If you are trying to explain a process, you want to write the steps that should be followed. You will probably need to group these into categories. If you have trouble grouping the steps into categories, try using Beginning, Middle, and End.
• If you are trying to inform, you want to write the major categories into which your information can be divided.

4. Under each Roman numeral, write A, B, and C down the left side of the page.

5. Next to each letter, write the facts or information that support that main idea.

When you have finished, you have the basic structure for your essay and are ready to continue.

Compose a Thesis Statement

Now that you have decided, at least tentatively, what information you plan to present in your essay, you are ready to write your thesis statement. The thesis statement tells the reader what the essay will be about, and what point you, the author, will be making. You know what the essay will be about. That was your topic. Now you must look at your outline or diagram and decide what point you will be making. What do the main ideas and supporting ideas that you listed say about your topic?

Your thesis statement will have two parts.

1. The first part states the topic.

• Kenya‘s Culture
• Building a Model Train Set
• Public Transportation

2. The second part states the point of the essay.

· has a rich and varied history

· takes time and patience

· can solve some of our city’s most persistent and pressing problems

Once you have formulated a thesis statement that fits this pattern and with which you are comfortable, you are ready to continue.

Write the Body Paragraphs

In the body of the essay, all the preparation up to this point comes to fruition. The topic you have chosen must now be explained, described, or argued. Each main idea that you wrote down in your diagram or outline will become one of the body paragraphs. If you had three or four main ideas, you will have three or four body paragraphs.

Each body paragraph will have the same basic structure.

1. Start by writing down one of your main ideas, in sentence form. If your main idea is “reduces freeway congestion,” you might say this: Public transportation reduces freeway congestion.

2. Next, write down each of your supporting points for that main idea, but leave four or five lines in between each point.

3. In the space under each point, write down some elaboration for that point.

Elaboration can be further description or explanation or discussion.

Supporting Point

Commuters appreciate the cost savings of taking public transportation rather than driving.

Elaboration

Less driving time means less maintenance expense, such as oil changes.

Of course, less driving time means savings on gasoline as well.

In many cases, these savings amount to more than the cost of riding public transportation.

4. If you wish, include a summary sentence for each paragraph. This is not generally needed, however, and such sentences have a tendency to sound stilted, so be cautious about using them. Once you have fleshed out each of your body paragraphs, one for each main point, you are ready to continue.

Write the Introduction and Conclusion

Your essay lacks only two paragraphs now: the introduction and the conclusion. These paragraphs will give the reader a point of entry to and a point of exit from your essay.

Introduction

The introduction should be designed to attract the reader’s attention and give her an idea of the essay’s focus.

1. Begin with an attention grabber.

The attention grabber you use is up to you, but here are some ideas:

• Startling information

This information must be true and verifiable, and it doesn’t need to be totally new to your readers.

It could simply be a pertinent fact that explicitly illustrates the point you wish to make.

If you use a piece of startling information, follow it with a sentence or two of elaboration.

• Anecdote

An anecdote is a story that illustrates a point.

Be sure your anecdote is short, to the point, and relevant to your topic. This can be a very effective opener for your essay, but use it carefully.

• Dialogue

An appropriate dialogue does not have to identify the speakers, but the reader must understand the point you are trying to convey. Use only two or three exchanges between speakers to make your point. Follow dialogue with a sentence or two of elaboration.

• Summary Information

A few sentences explaining your topic in general terms can lead the reader gently to your thesis.

Each sentence should become gradually more specific, until you reach your thesis.

2. If the attention grabber was only a sentence or two, add one or two more sentences that will lead the reader

from your opening to your thesis statement.

3. Finish the paragraph with your thesis statement.

Conclusion

The conclusion brings closure to the reader, summing up your points or providing a final perspective on your topic. All the conclusion needs is three or four strong sentences which do not need to follow any set formula. Simply review the main points (being careful not to restate them exactly) or briefly describe your feelings about the topic. Even an anecdote can end your essay in a useful way. The introduction and conclusion complete the paragraphs of your essay. Don’t stop just yet! One more step remains before your essay is truly finished.

(To be continued…)

1. Are you going to attend the lecture?

2. I want to make my dreams come true.

3. I don’t know whether I go or I stay. (Because of the sentence: “I don’t know” we use ‘whether’)

4. He wanted to know what the matter was.

5. He suggested that she should take psychology. (subjunctive)

6. This soup tastes good. (Use adjectives with verbs of sense)

Brainstorm Subjects of Interest

Once you have determined the purpose of your essay, write down some subjects that interest you. No matter what the purpose of your essay is, an endless number of topics will be suitable.

If you have trouble thinking of subjects, start by looking around you. Is there anything in your surroundings that interests you? Think about your life. What occupies most of your time? That might make for a good topic. Don’t evaluate the subjects yet; just write down anything that springs to mind.

Evaluate Each Potential Topic

If you can think of at least a few topics that would be appropriate, you must simply consider each one individually. Think about how you feel about that topic. If you must educate, be sure it is a subject about which you are particularly well-informed. If you must persuade, be sure it is a subject about which you are at least moderately passionate. Of course, the most important factor in choosing a topic is the number of ideas you have about that topic. Even if none of the subjects you thought of seem particularly appealing, try just choosing one to work with. It may turn out to be a better topic than you at first thought.

Before you are ready to move on in the essay-writing process, look one more time at the topic you have selected. Think about the type of paper you are expected to produce. Should it be a general overview, or a specific analysis of the topic? If it should be an overview, then you are probably ready to move to the next step. If it should be a specific analysis, make sure your topic is fairly specific. If it is too general, you must choose a narrower subtopic to discuss. For example, the topic “KENYA” is a general one. If your objective is to write an overview, this topic is suitable. If your objective is to write a specific analysis, this topic is too general. You must narrow it to something like “Politics in Kenya” or “Kenya’s Culture.” Once you have determined that your topic will be suitable, you can move on.

Organize Your Ideas

The purpose of an outline or diagram is to put your ideas about the topic on paper, in a moderately organized format. The structure you create here may still change before the essay is complete, so don’t agonize over this. Decide whether you prefer the cut-and-dried structure of an outline or a more flowing structure. If you start one or the other and decide it isn’t working for you, you can always switch later.

Diagram

1. Begin your diagram with a circle or a horizontal line or whatever shape you prefer in the middle of the page.

2. Inside the shape or on the line, write your topic.

3. From your center shape or line, draw three or four lines out into the page. Be sure to spread them out.

4. At the end of each of these lines, draw another circle or horizontal line or whatever you drew in the center of the page.

5. In each shape or on each line, write the main ideas that you have about your topic, or the main points that you want to make. (You can select some verbs which might help you express your ideas. Some examples: IDENTIFY, ILLUSTRATE, DEFINE, EXPLAIN, DESCRIBE, DISCUSS, GIVE AN ACCOUNT OF, SHOW, DEMONSTRATE, OUTLINE)

• If you are trying to persuade, you want to write your best arguments.
• If you are trying to explain a process, you want to write the steps that should be followed.

You will probably need to group these into categories. If you have trouble grouping the steps into categories, try using Beginning, Middle, and End.

• If you are trying to inform, you want to write the major categories into which your information can be divided.
• Verbs used to compare: DISTINGUISH BETWEEN, CONTRAST, COMPARE, EXPLAIN OR DISCUSS THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN.
• Verbs used to present cause and/or effect: GIVE/DISCUSS REASONS, DISCUSS/DESCRIBE THE CAUSES, ACCOUNT FOR, DESCRIBE THE EFFECTS, DESCRIBE THE IMPACT.
• For a critical evaluation: DISCUSS, EVALUATE, ASSESS.

6. From each of your main ideas, draw three or four lines out into the page.

7. At the end of each of these lines, draw another circle or horizontal line or whatever you drew in the center of the page.

8. In each shape or on each line, write the facts or information that support that main idea.

When you have finished, you have the basic structure for your essay and are ready to continue.

(To be continued…)

1. Are you going to assist the lecture?

1. I want to realize my dreams.

1. I don’t know if I go or I stay.

1. He wanted to know what was the matter.

1. He suggested that she takes psychology.

1. This soup tastes well.

1. The teacher made me to repeat the exercise.

Check these interesting sites:

You’ll find great tips to write your essay here.

And also here: The American University in Cairo

Why don’t you try this one?

Couldn’t find what you were looking for? Maybe this one will help you…

Have fun!

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Please, try not to end up like this guy here, hahahahaha!